CHAPTER 3
第三章
COLLISION A T CAJAMARCA
卡哈马卡的冲突
THE BIGGEST POPULATION SHIFT OF MODERN TIMES HAS been the colonization of the New World by Europeans, and the resulting conquest, numerical reduction, or complete disappearance of most groups of Native Americans (American Indians). As I explained in Chapter 1, the New World was initially colonized around or before 11,000 B.C. by way of Alaska, the Bering Strait, and Siberia. Complex agricultural societies gradually arose in the Americas far to the south of that entry route, developing in complete isolation from the emerging complex societies of the Old World. After that initial colonization from Asia, the sole well-attested further contacts between the New World and Asia involved only hunter-gatherers living on opposite sides of the Bering Strait, plus an inferred transpacific voyage that introduced the sweet potato from South America to Polynesia.
现代最大的人口变迁是欧洲人对新大陆的移民，以及随之发生的对美洲土著(美洲印第安人)的征服、土著人数的减少或完全消失。我在第一章中说过，对新大陆的最早移民行动是在公元前11000年左右或更早的时候，经由阿拉斯加、白令海峡和西伯利亚实现的。复杂的农业社会在移民进入路线以南很远的美洲逐步兴起，在与旧大陆的方兴未艾的复杂社会完全隔绝的情况下发展起来。在那次来自亚洲的最早的移民行动之后，新大陆与亚洲之间唯一得到充分证明的进一步接触，只涉及生活在白令海峡两岸的狩猎采集族群，再有就是臆想中的横渡太平洋的航行了，而正是这次航行把甘薯从南美洲引进了波利尼西亚。
As for contacts of New World peoples with Europe, the sole early ones involved the Norse who occupied Greenland in very small numbers between A.D. 986 and about 1500. But those Norse visits had no discernible impact on Native American societies. Instead, for practical purposes the collision of advanced Old World and New World societies began abruptly in A.D. 1492, with Christopher Columbus's “discovery” of Caribbean islands densely populated by Native Americans.
至于新大陆族群与欧洲人的接触，唯一的早期接触与古挪威人有关，从公元986年到1500年左右，一批人数很少的古挪威人占领了格陵兰。但这些人的到来并没有对美洲土著社会产生任何看得见的影响。相反，由于克里斯托弗·哥伦布“发现”了美洲土著居住的人烟稠密的加勒比海诸岛，先进的旧大陆与新大陆社会之间的冲突实际上是在公元1492年突然开始的。
The most dramatic moment in subsequent European-Native American relations was the first encounter between the Inca emperor Atahuallpa and the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro at the Peruvian highland town of Cajamarca on November 16, 1532. Atahuallpa was absolute monarch of the largest and most advanced state in the New World, while Pizarro represented the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (also known as King Charles I of Spain), monarch of the most powerful state in Europe. Pizarro, leading a ragtag group of 168 Spanish soldiers, was in unfamiliar terrain, ignorant of the local inhabitants, completely out of touch with the nearest Spaniards (1,000 miles to the north in Panama) and far beyond the reach of timely reinforcements. Atahuallpa was in the middle of his own empire of millions of subjects and immediately surrounded by his army of 80,000 soldiers, recently victorious in a war with other Indians. Nevertheless, Pizarro captured Atahuallpa within a few minutes after the two leaders first set eyes on each other. Pizarro proceeded to hold his prisoner for eight months, while extracting history's largest ransom in return for a promise to free him. After the ransom—enough gold to fill a room 22 feet long by 17 feet wide to a height of over 8 feet—was delivered, Pizarro reneged on his promise and executed Atahuallpa.
在随后发生的欧洲人与美洲土著的关系中最富戏剧性的时刻，是印加帝国皇帝阿塔瓦尔帕与西班牙征服者弗兰西斯科·皮萨罗于1532年11月16日在秘鲁高原城市卡哈马卡的第一次相遇。阿塔瓦尔帕是新大陆最大、最先进国家的专制君主，而皮萨罗则代表欧洲最强大国家的君主神圣罗马帝国皇帝查理五世(也叫西班牙国王查理一世)。皮萨罗率领一群由168名西班牙士兵组成的乌合之众，来到了一个陌生的地方，对当地的居民毫无了解，与距离最近的西班牙人(在北面1000英里的巴拿马)完全失去了联系，也根本无法得到及时的增援。阿塔瓦尔帕身处拥有数百万臣民的帝国的中心，他的不久前在与其他印第安人作战中取得胜利的8万之众的军队团团护卫着他。尽管如此，在这两位领导人见面后不到几分钟，皮萨罗就俘虏了阿塔瓦尔帕。皮萨罗接着把他的俘虏关押了8个月，同时勒索历史上最高的一笔赎金以换取释放他的承诺。这笔赎金是黄金，足够装满一间长22英尺、宽17英尺、高超过8英尺的房间。但在赎金交付后，皮萨罗却违背自己的诺言，把阿塔瓦尔帕处死了。
Atahuallpa's capture was decisive for the European conquest of the Inca Empire. Although the Spaniards' superior weapons would have assured an ultimate Spanish victory in any case, the capture made the conquest quicker and infinitely easier. Atahuallpa was revered by the Incas as a sungod and exercised absolute authority over his subjects, who obeyed even the orders he issued from captivity. The months until his death gave Pizarro time to dispatch exploring parties unmolested to other parts of the Inca Empire, and to send for reinforcements from Panama. When fighting between Spaniards and Incas finally did commence after Atahuallpa's execution, the Spanish forces were more formidable.
阿塔瓦尔帕的被俘对欧洲人征服印加帝国是决定性的。虽然西班牙人的精良武器无论如何也会确保西班牙人的最后胜利，但俘获阿塔瓦尔帕使西班牙人的征服变得更快而又无比容易。阿塔瓦尔帕被印加人尊奉为太阳神，对他的臣民行使绝对的权威，他的臣民甚至服从他在囚禁中发出的命令。他死前的几个月使皮萨罗得以从容地把一些探险队不受干扰地派往印加帝国的其他地区，并派人从巴拿马调来援军。在阿塔瓦尔帕死后西班牙人和印加人之间的战斗终于开始时，西班牙的军队已经比较难以对付了。
Thus, Atahuallpa's capture interests us specifically as marking the decisive moment in the greatest collision of modern history. But it is also of more general interest, because the factors that resulted in Pizarro's seizing Atahuallpa were essentially the same ones that determined the outcome of many similar collisions between colonizers and native peoples elsewhere in the modern world. Hence Atahuallpa's capture offers us a broad window onto world history.
因此，阿塔瓦尔帕的被俘之所以引起我们的特别兴趣，是因为它标志着近代史上这次最大冲突的决定性的转折关头。但它也是一个引起更普遍兴趣的问题，因为导致皮萨罗俘获阿塔瓦尔帕的那些因素，基本上也就是决定现代世界其他地方移民与土著民族之间许多冲突的结果的那些因素。因此，阿塔瓦尔帕的被俘事件给我们提供了一个观察世界史的宽阔的窗口。
WHAT UNFOLDED THAT day at Cajamarca is well known, because it was recorded in writing by many of the Spanish participants. To get a flavor of those events, let us relive them by weaving together excerpts from eyewitness accounts by six of Pizarro's companions, including his brothers Hernando and Pedro:
那天在卡哈马卡展开的事件是众所周知的，因为许多参与其事的西班牙人对此都有文字记载。为了给这些事件增加一点兴味，我们不妨把一些目击者的第一手叙述的摘录编排在一起，来重温一下当时的情景，这些叙述出自皮萨罗的6名随从之手，其中包括他的兄弟埃尔南多和佩德罗：
“The prudence, fortitude, military discipline, labors, perilous navigations, and battles of the Spaniards—vassals of the most invincible Emperor of the Roman Catholic Empire, our natural King and Lord—will cause joy to the faithful and terror to the infidels. For this reason, and for the glory of God our Lord and for the service of the Catholic Imperial Majesty, it has seemed good to me to write this narrative, and to send it to Your Majesty, that all may have a knowledge of what is here related. It will be to the glory of God, because they have conquered and brought to our holy Catholic Faith so vast a number of heathens, aided by His holy guidance. It will be to the honor of our Emperor because, by reason of his great power and good fortune, such events happened in his time. It will give joy to the faithful that such battles have been won, such provinces discovered and conquered, such riches brought home for the King and for themselves; and that such terror has been spread among the infidels, such admiration excited in all mankind.
“我们西班牙人是神圣罗马帝国战无不胜的皇帝、我们的天生国王和君主的臣民。我们的深谋远虑、刚毅坚忍、严明军纪、辛勤努力、出没风涛、浴血沙场，使虔诚徒众欢欣鼓舞，使异端邪教闻风丧胆。为了这个缘故，为了上帝的荣光，也为了宣扬天主教皇帝陛下的威德，我觉得宜作如下记述，并敬呈陛下，俾天下之人一体知晓此处所述之事。荣耀应归于上帝，因为西班牙人在他的神圣指引下，征服了广大的不信上帝之人，并使他们皈依我们神圣的天主教信仰。荣耀应归于我们的皇帝，因为仰仗他的伟大力量和好运，上述事件发生在他君临天下之时。这将会使虔诚的徒众感到欢欣鼓舞，因为上述战斗已经取得了胜利，上述行省已被发现和征服，上述财富已经运回家乡由国王和他们分享；同时也因为上述惊恐之情已在异教徒中广为传播，上述赞赏之心也已在全人类中油然而生。
“For when, either in ancient or modern times, have such great exploits been achieved by so few against so many, over so many climes, across so many seas, over such distances by land, to subdue the unseen and unknown? Whose deeds can be compared with those of Spain? Our Spaniards, being few in number, never having more than 200 or 300 men together, and sometimes only 100 and even fewer, have, in our times, conquered more territory than has ever been known before, or than all the faithful and infidel princes possess. I will only write, at present, of what befell in the conquest, and I will not write much, in order to avoid prolixity.
“因为，为了制服蛮荒之地的那些化外之民，从古到今，如此伟大的业绩在何时竟是靠如此少的人对抗如此多的人，在如此广大的地区，渡过如此多的海洋，跨过如此漫长距离的陆地来取得的？还有谁的英勇事迹能和西班牙的英勇事迹相提并论呢？我们西班牙人人数很少，总数从来不超过200人或300人，有时候只有100人甚至更少，但却在我们这个时代征服了前所未闻的广大领土，比所有相信上帝和不相信上帝的诸侯王公们所拥有的领土还大。现在，我将只写下在征服中所发生的事，为了避免冗长啰嗦，我将不会写得很多。
“Governor Pizarro wished to obtain intelligence from some Indians who had come from Cajamarca, so he had them tortured. They confessed that they had heard that Atahuallpa was waiting for the Governor at Cajamarca. The Governor then ordered us to advance. On reaching the entrance to Cajamarca, we saw the camp of Atahuallpa at a distance of a league, in the skirts of the mountains. The Indians' camp looked like a very beautiful city. They had so many tents that we were all filled with great apprehension. Until then, we had never seen anything like this in the Indies. It filled all our Spaniards with fear and confusion. But we could not show any fear or turn back, for if the Indians had sensed any weakness in us, even the Indians that we were bringing with us as guides would have killed us. So we made a show of good spirits, and after carefully observing the town and the tents, we descended into the valley and entered Cajamarca.
“皮萨罗总督希望从来自卡哈马卡的印第安人口中得到情报，于是他就叫人拷打他们。他们招供说，他们听人说阿塔瓦尔帕正在卡哈马卡等待总督。总督于是命令我们前进。在到达卡哈马卡的入口处时，我们就看见了一里格[1]外山边上的阿塔瓦尔帕的营地。印第安人的营地看去像一座很美丽的城市。他们的帐篷如此之多，使我们全都在心里充满了莫大的疑惧。在这以前，我们在西印度群岛从来没有见到过这样的情景。这使我们的西班牙人全都感到害怕和不知所措。但我们不能露出任何害怕的样子，也不能转身回去，因为如果这些印第安人觉察到我们的任何怯懦的迹象，那么甚至我们带来当向导的那些印第安人也会把我们杀死的。于是，我们就装出一副精神抖擞的样子，并在仔细观察这座城市和这些帐篷之后，走下山谷进入卡哈马卡。
“We talked a lot among ourselves about what to do. All of us were full of fear, because we were so few in number and we had penetrated so far into a land where we could not hope to receive reinforcements. We all met with the Governor to debate what we should undertake the next day. Few of us slept that night, and we kept watch in the square of Cajamarca, looking at the campfires of the Indian army. It was a frightening sight. Most of the campfires were on a hillside and so close to each other that it looked like the sky brightly studded with stars. There was no distinction that night between the mighty and the lowly, or between foot soldiers and horsemen. Everyone carried out sentry duty fully armed. So too did the good old Governor, who went about encouraging his men. The Governor's brother Hernando Pizarro estimated the number of Indian soldiers there at 40,000, but he was telling a lie just to encourage us, for there were actually more than 80,000 Indians.
“我们用不少时间来商量对策。我们心里全都充满了恐惧，因为我们人数太少，又深入到一个不可能指望得到援军的地方。我们全都去见总督，讨论第二天的行动方针。那天夜里我们很少有人睡觉，我们守候在卡哈马卡的广场上，注视着印第安军队的营火。这个景象看了令人害怕。大多数营火都是在山坡上，彼此又靠得很近，一眼看去就像天空中的点点繁星。那天晚上再也不分什么大人物和小人物，也不分什么步兵和骑兵了。每一个人都全副武装地站岗放哨。那位极其精明能干的总督也不例外，他跑来跑去给他的部下打气。总督的兄弟埃尔南多·皮萨罗估计，那儿印第安士兵的人数达到4万人，但他只是为了使我们宽心而撒了谎，因为实际上有8万多印第安人。
“On the next morning a messenger from Atahuallpa arrived, and the Governor said to him, ‘Tell your lord to come when and how he pleases, and that, in what way soever he may come I will receive him as a friend and brother. I pray that he may come quickly, for I desire to see him. No harm or insult will befall him.'
“第二天早上，阿塔瓦尔帕派出的信使到来，总督对他说，‘请转告贵国君主，欢迎他大驾光临，至于何时来和怎样来，都可按照他的意思办，不管他以什么方式来，我都会把他当朋友和兄弟来接待。我求他快来，因我渴望和他见面。他将不会受到任何伤害或侮辱。’
“The Governor concealed his troops around the square at Cajamarca, dividing the cavalry into two portions of which he gave the command of one to his brother Hernando Pizarro and the command of the other to Hernando de Soto. In like manner he divided the infantry, he himself taking one part and giving the other to his brother Juan Pizarro. At the same time, he ordered Pedro de Candia with two or three infantrymen to go with trumpets to a small fort in the plaza and to station themselves there with a small piece of artillery. When all the Indians, and Atahuallpa with them, had entered the Plaza, the Governor would give a signal to Candia and his men, after which they should start firing the gun, and the trumpets should sound, and at the sound of the trumpets the cavalry should dash out of the large court where they were waiting hidden in readiness.
“总督把他的部队埋伏在卡哈马卡的广场周围，把骑兵一分为二，一支交由他的兄弟埃尔南多·皮萨罗指挥，另一支交由埃尔南多·德索托指挥。他把步兵也一分为二，他本人率领一部分，另一部分则交给他的兄弟胡安·皮萨罗。同时，他命令佩德罗·德坎迪亚和两三个步兵带着喇叭到广场上的一个小堡垒去，并携带一尊小炮驻守那里。当所有的印第安人和率领他们的阿塔瓦尔帕进入广场时，总督会向坎迪亚和他的士兵发出信号，同时喇叭也要吹响，骑兵听到喇叭声要从他们埋伏等待的大院子里冲出来。
“At noon Atahuallpa began to draw up his men and to approach. Soon we saw the entire plain full of Indians, halting periodically to wait for more Indians who kept filing out of the camp behind them. They kept filling out in separate detachments into the afternoon. The front detachments were now close to our camp, and still more troops kept issuing from the camp of the Indians. In front of Atahuallpa went 2,000 Indians who swept the road ahead of him, and these were followed by the warriors, half of whom were marching in the fields on one side of him and half on the other side.
“中午，阿塔瓦尔帕开始集合队伍并向前接近。很快我们就看到整个平原上都是密密麻麻的印第安人，他们不时地停下来，等待不断地从他们身后营地里列队而出的另一些印第安人。到了下午，他们分成一个个小分队，不断地列队而出。走在前面的几个小分队这时已靠近我们的营地，同时仍有更多的部队不断地从印第安人的营地出发。在阿塔瓦尔帕前面的是2000个清扫道路的印第安人，他们的后面是一些战士，其中一半人在他一边的田野里行进，另一半人在他另一边的田野里行进。
“First came a squadron of Indians dressed in clothes of different colors, like a chessboard. They advanced, removing the straws from the ground and sweeping the road. Next came three squadrons in different dresses, dancing and singing. Then came a number of men with armor, large metal plates, and crowns of gold and silver. So great was the amount of furniture of gold and silver which they bore, that it was a marvel to observe how the sun glinted upon it. Among them came the figure of Atahuallpa in a very fine litter with the ends of its timbers covered in silver. Eighty lords carried him on their shoulders, all wearing a very rich blue livery. Atahuallpa himself was very richly dressed, with his crown on his head and a collar of large emeralds around his neck. He sat on a small stool with a rich saddle cushion resting on his litter. The litter was lined with parrot feathers of many colors and decorated with plates of gold and silver.
“首先来到的是一群身穿五颜六色、棋盘格似服装的印第安人。他们一边前进，一边拾起地上的稻草并清扫道路。其次来到的是3群身着不同服装、载歌载舞的印第安人。接着又来了一批人，他们抬着盔甲、巨大的金属盘子和金银打就的皇冠。他们抬着的用金银制成的全套行头数量众多，在阳光照射下闪闪发光，令人叹为观止。在这些人当中出现了阿塔瓦尔帕的身影，他坐在华美的轿子里，轿子木支架的末端用银子包着，由80个身着鲜蓝色号衣的领主扛在肩上。阿塔瓦尔帕本人锦衣绣服，头戴皇冠，脖子上套着一个绿宝石大颈圈。他坐在轿子里的一个放着华丽鞍形坐垫的小凳子上。轿子的四周插着五颜六色的鹦鹉毛，并用金银盘子装饰起来。
“Behind Atahuallpa came two other litters and two hammocks, in which were some high chiefs, then several squadrons of Indians with crowns of gold and silver. These Indian squadrons began to enter the plaza to the accompaniment of great songs, and thus entering they occupied every part of the plaza. In the meantime all of us Spaniards were waiting ready, hidden in a courtyard, full of fear. Many of us urinated without noticing it, out of sheer terror. On reaching the center of the plaza, Atahuallpa remained in his litter on high, while his troops continued to file in behind him.
“在阿塔瓦尔帕后面是另外两顶轿子和两只吊床，里面坐着几个高级酋长，随后又是几群抬着金冠银冠的印第安人。这几群印第安人合着响亮歌声的节拍开始进入广场，他们就这样不断进来，占领了广场的每个地方。在这期间，我们全体西班牙人一切准备就绪，埋伏在院子里等着，心里充满了恐惧。我们有许多人完全是因为惊恐而在不知不觉中尿了裤子。阿塔瓦尔帕在到达广场中心后仍然高高地坐在他的轿子里，而他的部队在他的身后继续列队而入。
“Governor Pizarro now sent Friar Vicente de Valverde to go speak to Atahuallpa, and to require Atahuallpa in the name of God and of the King of Spain that Atahuallpa subject himself to the law of our Lord Jesus Christ and to the service of His Majesty the King of Spain. Advancing with a cross in one hand and the Bible in the other hand, and going among the Indian troops up to the place where Atahuallpa was, the Friar thus addressed him: ‘I am a Priest of God, and I teach Christians the things of God, and in like manner I come to teach you. What I teach is that which God says to us in this Book. Therefore, on the part of God and of the Christians, I beseech you to be their friend, for such is God's will, and it will be for your good.'
“皮萨罗总督这时派托钵修会修士维森特·德巴尔维德过去和阿塔瓦尔帕搭话，并以上帝和西班牙国王的名义，要求阿塔瓦尔帕服从耶稣基督的权威和效忠西班牙国王陛下。修士一手拿着十字架，一手拿着《圣经》，举步向前，穿过重重的印第安人部队，来到阿塔瓦尔帕跟前，开口对他说：‘我是上帝派来的仆人，我把上帝的福音教给基督徒，现在我也同样来教你。我教的就是上帝在这本书里对我们所说的话。因此，我代表上帝和基督徒，请求你做他们的朋友，因为这是上帝的意志，也是为了你的福祉。’
“Atahuallpa asked for the Book, that he might look at it, and the Friar gave it to him closed. Atahuallpa did not know how to open the Book, and the Friar was extending his arm to do so, when Atahuallpa, in great anger, gave him a blow on the arm, not wishing that it should be opened. Then he opened it himself, and, without any astonishment at the letters and paper he threw it away from him five or six paces, his face a deep crimson.
“阿塔瓦尔帕把书要过去，他想看一看。于是修士就把书合着递给了他。阿塔瓦尔帕不知道怎样把书打开，修士就把手伸过去帮忙。这时，阿塔瓦尔帕勃然大怒，对修士的手臂打了一拳，他不愿别人帮这个忙。于是，他亲自把书打开，他发现书上的字和纸并没有任何令人惊异之处，就把书扔出去五六步远，满脸涨得通红。
“The Friar returned to Pizarro, shouting, ‘Come out! Come out, Christians! Come at these enemy dogs who reject the things of God. That tyrant has thrown my book of holy law to the ground! Did you not see what happened? Why remain polite and servile toward this over-proud dog when the plains are full of Indians? March out against him, for I absolve you!'
“修士回到皮萨罗身边，大叫：‘出来吧！出来吧，基督徒们！向这些拒绝上帝福音的狗敌人冲过去！那个暴君竟敢把我的《圣经》扔在地上！你们难道没有看见刚才发生的事？在平原上全是印第安人的时候，我们干吗还要对这个过分傲慢自大的狗杂种讲究谦恭礼貌呢？向他们冲过去，我会宽恕你们的罪孽的！’
“The governor then gave the signal to Candia, who began to fire off the guns. At the same time the trumpets were sounded, and the armored Spanish troops, both cavalry and infantry, sallied forth out of their hiding places straight into the mass of unarmed Indians crowding the square, giving the Spanish battle cry, ‘Santiago!' We had placed rattles on the horses to terrify the Indians. The booming of the guns, the blowing of the trumpets, and the rattles on the horses threw the Indians into panicked confusion. The Spaniards fell upon them and began to cut them to pieces. The Indians were so filled with fear that they climbed on top of one another, formed mounds, and suffocated each other. Since they were unarmed, they were attacked without danger to any Christian. The cavalry rode them down, killing and wounding, and following in pursuit. The infantry made so good an assault on those that remained that in a short time most of them were put to the sword.
“于是，总督向坎迪亚发出信号，坎迪亚开始开炮。与此同时，喇叭也吹响了，全副武装的西班牙部队，有骑兵有步兵，从他们埋伏的地方向在广场上挤成一团的手无寸铁的印第安人冲去，一边喊着西班牙的战斗口号：‘圣地亚哥！’我们已经在马身上缚了响器来吓唬印第安人。枪声、喇叭声和响器声使印第安人陷入一片惊慌。西班牙人向他们攻击，动手把他们砍成几段。印第安人吓得互相践踏，形成一个个人堆，彼此都因窒息而死。因为他们手无寸铁，任何一个基督徒都可毫无危险地攻击他们。骑兵策马把他们撞倒，把他们杀死的杀死，打伤的打伤，对逃跑的就穷追不舍。步兵对剩下的人发动狠狠的攻击，其中大多数人很快就都成了刀下之鬼。
“The Governor himself took his sword and dagger, entered the thick of the Indians with the Spaniards who were with him, and with great bravery reached Atahuallpa's litter. He fearlessly grabbed Atahuallpa's left arm and shouted ‘Santiago!,' but he could not pull Atahuallpa out of his litter because it was held up high. Although we killed the Indians who held the litter, others at once took their places and held it aloft, and in this manner we spent a long time in overcoming and killing Indians. Finally seven or eight Spaniards on horseback spurred on their horses, rushed upon the litter from one side, and with great effort they heaved it over on its side. In that way Atahuallpa was captured, and the Governor took Atahuallpa to his lodging. The Indians carrying the litter, and those escorting Atahuallpa, never abandoned him: all died around him.
“总督本人一手拿剑一手拿匕首，带着身边的几个西班牙人冲进密集的印第安人群，并且非常勇敢地来到阿塔瓦尔帕的轿子旁。他大胆地一把抓住阿塔瓦尔帕的左臂，口中大喊一声‘圣地亚哥！’，但他无法把阿塔瓦尔帕从轿子里扯出来，因为轿子被举得很高。虽然他杀死了举着轿子的几个印第安人，但别的印第安人立刻接上来把轿子举得高高的，就这样我们花了很长时间去制服和杀死印第安人。最后，七八个西班牙骑兵策马赶来，从一边向轿子猛冲，用很大力气把轿子推得侧倒在地。阿塔瓦尔帕就这样被捉住了。总督把阿塔瓦尔帕带到他的住所。抬轿子的那些印第安人和护卫阿塔瓦尔帕的那些印第安人没有丢弃他：全都在他的身旁死了。
“The panic-stricken Indians remaining in the square, terrified at the firing of the guns and at the horses—something they had never seen—tried to flee from the square by knocking down a stretch of wall and running out onto the plain outside. Our cavalry jumped the broken wall and charged into the plain, shouting, ‘Chase those with the fancy clothes! Don't let any escape! Spear them!' All of the other Indian soldiers whom Atahuallpa had brought were a mile from Cajamarca ready for battle, but not one made a move, and during all this not one Indian raised a weapon against a Spaniard. When the squadrons of Indians who had remained in the plain outside the town saw the other Indians fleeing and shouting, most of them too panicked and fled. It was an astonishing sight, for the whole valley for 15 or 20 miles was completely filled with Indians. Night had already fallen, and our cavalry were continuing to spear Indians in the fields, when we heard a trumpet calling for us to reassemble at camp.
“留在广场上的那些惊慌失措的印第安人被枪炮的射击和马匹吓坏了——这是他们以前从来没有看见过的东西——他们设法推倒一段围墙，逃离广场，跑到外面的平原上去。我们的骑兵从围墙的缺口一跃而出，冲进平原，一边大声喊叫：‘追那些穿花衣服的！一个也不要让他逃走！用矛刺他们！’阿塔瓦尔帕带来的其他印第安士兵全都在距离卡哈马卡一英里的地方严阵以待，但没有一个人移动一步，在发生所有这一切期间，没有一个印第安人拿起武器来对付一个西班牙人。当留在城外平原上的一队队印第安人看见别的印第安人喊叫着逃跑时，他们中的大多数人也惊慌起来，拔脚就逃。这是一个令人惊叹的奇观，因为整个山谷在15或20英里范围内完全塞满了印第安人。夜色已经降临，而我们的骑兵仍在田野里用长矛刺杀印第安人，这时我们听到了要求我们回营集合的号声。
“If night had not come on, few out of the more than 40,000 Indian troops would have been left alive. Six or seven thousand Indians lay dead, and many more had their arms cut off and other wounds. Atahuallpa himself admitted that we had killed 7,000 of his men in that battle. The man killed in one of the litters was his minister, the lord of Chincha, of whom he was very fond. All those Indians who bore Atahuallpa's litter appeared to be high chiefs and councillors. They were all killed, as well as those Indians who were carried in the other litters and hammocks. The lord of Cajamarca was also killed, and others, but their numbers were so great that they could not be counted, for all who came in attendance on Atahuallpa were great lords. It was extraordinary to see so powerful a ruler captured in so short a time, when he had come with such a mighty army. Truly, it was not accomplished by our own forces, for there were so few of us. It was by the grace of God, which is great.
“要不是夜色降临，这4万多人的印第安人部队中能够活下来的人不会有几个。6000—7000个印第安人死了，更多的印第安人被斩去了手臂或受了别的伤。阿塔瓦尔帕本人也承认说，那一仗他的部下被我们杀死了7000人。在一顶轿子里被杀死的那个人是他的大臣——钦查的领主，那是一个深得他的宠信的人。给阿塔瓦尔帕抬轿子的那些印第安人似乎都是一些高级首领和顾问。他们全都被杀死了，还有坐在别的轿子和吊床上的那些印第安人也都被杀死了。卡哈马卡的领主和其他一些人也被杀死了，但他们人数多得数不过来，因为来侍候阿塔瓦尔帕的人全都是大领主。如此强大的一个统治者，来时率领了如此强大的一支军队，却在如此短的时间内被俘，这实在令人惊异。的确，这不是靠我们自己的力量做到的，因为我们的人数是如此之少。这是上帝的恩泽，而上帝是伟大的。
“Atahuallpa's robes had been torn off when the Spaniards pulled him out of his litter. The Governor ordered clothes to be brought to him, and when Atahuallpa was dressed, the Governor ordered Atahuallpa to sit near him and soothed his rage and agitation at finding himself so quickly fallen from his high estate. The Governor said to Atahuallpa, ‘Do not take it as an insult that you have been defeated and taken prisoner, for with the Christians who come with me, though so few in number, I have conquered greater kingdoms than yours, and have defeated other more powerful lords than you, imposing upon them the dominion of the Emperor, whose vassal I am, and who is King of Spain and of the universal world. We come to conquer this land by his command, that all may come to a knowledge of God and of His Holy Catholic Faith; and by reason of our good mission, God, the Creator of heaven and earth and of all things in them, permits this, in order that you may know Him and come out from the bestial and diabolical life that you lead. It is for this reason that we, being so few in number, subjugate that vast host. When you have seen the errors in which you live, you will understand the good that we have done you by coming to your land by order of his Majesty the King of Spain. Our Lord permitted that your pride should be brought low and that no Indian should be able to offend a Christian.'”
“当西班牙人把阿塔瓦尔帕从轿子里拖下来时，他身上的袍子也被扯落了。总督命人给他拿来衣服，阿塔瓦尔帕穿好衣服后，总督命令他坐在自己的身旁，劝他不要因为自己从高高在上的地位迅速跌落下来而生气和焦躁不安。总督对阿塔瓦尔帕说，‘不要把你被打败和被俘这件事看作是一种侮辱，因为我手下的这些基督徒人数虽少，但我和他们一起征服过比你们更强大的王国，打败过其他一些比你更强大的君主，把皇帝的统治强加给他们。我是皇帝的臣民，他也是西班牙和全世界的国王。我们是奉他的命令来征服这块土地的，这样就可以使所有的人认识上帝，认识他的神圣的天主教；而由于我们肩负的光荣使命，上帝——天地万物的创造者才允许让这一切发生，以便使你们认识他，从而脱离你们所过的那种野蛮而邪恶的生活。正是由于这个缘故，我们才能以少胜多。如果你们明白你们生活在种种谬误之中，你们就会了解我们奉西班牙国王陛下之命来到此地给你们所带来的福祉。上帝的意思就是打掉你们的傲气，不让一个印第安人对基督徒有冒犯行为。’”
LET US NOW trace the chain of causation in this extraordinary confrontation, beginning with the immediate events. When Pizarro and Atahuallpa met at Cajamarca, why did Pizarro capture Atahuallpa and kill so many of his followers, instead of Atahuallpa's vastly more numerous forces capturing and killing Pizarro? After all, Pizarro had only 62 soldiers mounted on horses, along with 106 foot soldiers, while Atahuallpa commanded an army of about 80,000. As for the antecedents of those events, how did Atahuallpa come to be at Cajamarca at all? How did Pizarro come to be there to capture him, instead of Atahuallpa's coming to Spain to capture King Charles I? Why did Atahuallpa walk into what seems to us, with the gift of hindsight, to have been such a transparent trap? Did the factors acting in the encounter of Atahuallpa and Pizarro also play a broader role in encounters between Old World and New World peoples and between other peoples?
现在，让我们从几个直接的事件开始，把这个非同一般的冲突中的因果关系链找出来。当皮萨罗和阿塔瓦尔帕在卡哈马卡相见时，为什么会是皮萨罗俘虏阿塔瓦尔帕并杀死他那么多的追随者，而不是阿塔瓦尔帕的人数多得多的军队俘虏并杀死皮萨罗？毕竟，皮萨罗只有62名骑兵和106名步兵，而阿塔瓦尔帕则统率着一支大约8万人的军队。至于在这些事件之前发生的事，阿塔瓦尔帕是怎么会到卡哈马卡来的？皮萨罗怎么会到这里来俘虏他，而不是阿塔瓦尔帕到西班牙去俘虏查理国王？为什么阿塔瓦尔帕会走进用我们天生的事后聪明来看竟是如此明显的圈套？在阿塔瓦尔帕和皮萨罗相遇中起作用的那些因素，是否也在旧大陆和新大陆民族之间以及其他民族之间起着某种更广泛的作用呢？
Why did Pizarro capture Atahuallpa??Pizarro's military advantages lay in the Spaniards' steel swords and other weapons, steel armor, guns, and horses. To those weapons, Atahuallpa's troops, without animals on which to ride into battle, could oppose only stone, bronze, or wooden clubs, maces, and hand axes, plus slingshots and quilted armor. Such imbalances of equipment were decisive in innumerable other confrontations of Europeans with Native Americans and other peoples.
为什么皮萨罗会俘虏阿塔瓦尔帕？皮萨罗的军事优势在于西班牙人的钢刀和其他武器、钢制盔甲、枪炮和马匹。阿塔瓦尔帕的部队没有可以骑着冲锋陷阵的牲口，他们在对付西班牙人的武器时，只能用石头、青铜棍或木棍、狼牙棒、短柄斧头，再加上弹弓和护身软垫。这种装备上的悬殊在欧洲人与印第安人以及其他民族的无数次其他冲突中是决定性的。
The sole Native Americans able to resist European conquest for many centuries were those tribes that reduced the military disparity by acquiring and mastering both horses and guns. To the average white American, the word “Indian” conjures up an image of a mounted Plains Indian brandishing a rifle, like the Sioux warriors who annihilated General George Custer's U.S. Army battalion at the famous battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876. We easily forget that horses and rifles were originally unknown to Native Americans. They were brought by Europeans and proceeded to transform the societies of Indian tribes that acquired them. Thanks to their mastery of horses and rifles, the Plains Indians of North America, the Araucanian Indians of southern Chile, and the Pampas Indians of Argentina fought off invading whites longer than did any other Native Americans, succumbing only to massive army operations by white governments in the 1870s and 1880s.
许多世纪以来唯一能够抵抗欧洲人征服的美洲土著，是那些得到并掌握马匹和枪炮从而缩小兵力差距的部落。对一般的美国白人来说，一提起“印第安人”这个词，他们的脑海里立即浮现出一个骑在马上挥舞步枪的大平原印第安人的形象，就像1876年在著名的小比格霍恩河战役中消灭了乔治·卡斯特将军部队的苏族印第安人战士那样。我们很容易忘记，美洲土著对马和步枪本来是一无所知的。它们是欧洲人带进来的，接着就开始改变获得它们的印第安人社会。由于掌握了马和步枪，北美的大平原印第安人、智利南部的阿劳干印第安人和阿根廷的无树大草原印第安人都击退过入侵的白人，其时间之长不是任何其他印第安人所能企及，只是在19世纪70年代和80年代被白人政府的大规模军事行动所打垮。
Today, it is hard for us to grasp the enormous numerical odds against which the Spaniards' military equipment prevailed. At the battle of Cajamarca recounted above, 168 Spaniards crushed a Native American army 500 times more numerous, killing thousands of natives while not losing a single Spaniard. Time and again, accounts of Pizarro's subsequent battles with the Incas, Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs, and other early European campaigns against Native Americans describe encounters in which a few dozen European horsemen routed thousands of Indians with great slaughter. During Pizarro's march from Cajamarca to the Inca capital of Cuzco after Atahuallpa's death, there were four such battles: at Jauja, Vilcashuaman, Vilcaconga, and Cuzco. Those four battles involved a mere 80, 30, 110, and 40 Spanish horsemen, respectively, in each case ranged against thousands or tens of thousands of Indians.
今天，我们很难理解被西班牙人的军事装备打败的这种人数上的巨大优势。在上面详细叙述的卡哈马卡战役中，168个西班牙人粉碎了在人数上500倍于己的一支美洲土著军队，杀死了数以千计的土人，而自己却未损一兵一卒。关于皮萨罗随后与印加人的几次战役、科尔特斯对阿兹特克人的征服以及欧洲人对美洲土著的其他一些早期军事行动的记述，一再描绘了一些关于几十个欧洲骑兵大肆杀戮，击溃了数以千计的印第安人的战斗。在阿塔瓦尔帕死后皮萨罗从卡哈马卡向印加帝国首都库斯科进军期间，有过4次这样的战役，它们发生在豪哈、比尔卡苏阿曼、比尔卡康加和库斯科。参加这4个战役的西班牙骑兵分别只有80人、30人、110人和40人，而每次所要对付的敌人或则数以千计，或则数以万计。
These Spanish victories cannot be written off as due merely to the help of Native American allies, to the psychological novelty of Spanish weapons and horses, or (as is often claimed) to the Incas' mistaking Spaniards for their returning god Viracocha. The initial successes of both Pizarro and Cortés did attract native allies. However, many of them would not have become allies if they had not already been persuaded, by earlier devastating successes of unassisted Spaniards, that resistance was futile and that they should side with the likely winners. The novelty of horses, steel weapons, and guns undoubtedly paralyzed the Incas at Cajamarca, but the battles after Cajamarca were fought against determined resistance by Inca armies that had already seen Spanish weapons and horses. Within half a dozen years of the initial conquest, Incas mounted two desperate, large-scale, well-prepared rebellions against the Spaniards. All those efforts failed because of the Spaniards' far superior armament.
西班牙人的这些胜利不能轻易地仅仅归之于美洲土著盟友的帮助，归之于西班牙人的武器和马匹这种新奇事物所产生的心理作用，也不能(像有人经常宣称的那样)归之于印加人误把西班牙人当作是他们的神灵比拉科查降世。皮萨罗和科尔特斯的初期胜利，的确吸引了一些土著盟友。然而，得不到帮助的西班牙人早期的破坏性极大的胜利，已使这些土著盟友相信，抵抗是无济于事的，他们应该同很有希望的胜利者站在一起。如果不是这样，其中许多人是不会成为盟友的。毫无疑问，马匹、钢铁武器和枪炮这些新奇的玩意儿，在卡哈马卡使印加人不知所措，但卡哈马卡战役后的那几次战役，却遇到了已经见识过西班牙人的武器和马匹的印加军队的坚决抵抗。在初期征服的六七年内，印加人发动了反对西班牙人的两次拼死的、大规模的、准备充分的叛乱。所有这些努力都由于西班牙人的远为精良的武器装备而失败了。
By the 1700s, guns had replaced swords as the main weapon favoring European invaders over Native Americans and other native peoples. For example, in 1808 a British sailor named Charlie Savage equipped with muskets and excellent aim arrived in the Fiji Islands. The aptly named Savage proceeded single-handedly to upset Fiji's balance of power. Among his many exploits, he paddled his canoe up a river to the Fijian village of Kasavu, halted less than a pistol shot's length from the village fence, and fired away at the undefended inhabitants. His victims were so numerous that surviving villagers piled up the bodies to take shelter behind them, and the stream beside the village was red with blood. Such examples of the power of guns against native peoples lacking guns could be multiplied indefinitely.
到18世纪开始时，枪炮取代刀剑而成为主要武器，帮助入侵的欧洲人取得对美洲土著和其他土著族群的优势。例如，1808年，一个携带火枪并且枪法百发百中的名叫查利·萨维奇的英国水手来到斐济群岛。这个名如其人的萨维奇[2]接着单枪匹马破坏了斐济的权力平衡。他干过许多胆大妄为的事，有一次划着独木舟沿河逆流而上，到了一个叫做卡萨武的斐济村庄，他在村庄篱笆外手枪射程之内停下脚步，向毫无防备的居民开火。被他打死的人很多，没有被打死的人就把死人的尸体堆起来躲在后面，村旁小河里的水都被血染红了。这种用枪炮对没有枪炮的人滥施淫威的例子多得不可胜数。
In the Spanish conquest of the Incas, guns played only a minor role. The guns of those times (so-called harquebuses) were difficult to load and fire, and Pizarro had only a dozen of them. They did produce a big psychological effect on those occasions when they managed to fire. Far more important were the Spaniards' steel swords, lances, and daggers, strong sharp weapons that slaughtered thinly armored Indians. In contrast, Indian blunt clubs, while capable of battering and wounding Spaniards and their horses, rarely succeeded in killing them. The Spaniards' steel or chain mail armor and, above all, their steel helmets usually provided an effective defense against club blows, while the Indians' quilted armor offered no protection against steel weapons.
在西班牙人对印加人的征服中，枪炮只起了一种次要的作用。当时的枪(所谓的火绳枪)既难装填，又难发射，皮萨罗也只有十来支这样的枪。在它们能够凑合着发射出去的那些场合，它们的确产生了巨大的心理作用。重要得多的倒是西班牙人的钢刀、长矛和匕首，这些都是用来屠杀身体甚少防护的印第安人的强有力的锐利武器。相比之下，印第安人的无棱无锋的棍棒虽然也能打伤西班牙人和他们的马匹，但很少能将其杀死。西班牙人的铁甲或锁子甲，尤其是他们的钢盔，通常都能有效地对付棍棒的打击，而印第安人的护身软垫则无法防御钢铁武器的进攻。
The tremendous advantage that the Spaniards gained from their horses leaps out of the eyewitness accounts. Horsemen could easily outride Indian sentries before the sentries had time to warn Indian troops behind them, and could ride down and kill Indians on foot. The shock of a horse's charge, its maneuverability, the speed of attack that it permitted, and the raised and protected fighting platform that it provided left foot soldiers nearly helpless in the open. Nor was the effect of horses due only to the terror that they inspired in soldiers fighting against them for the first time. By the time of the great Inca rebellion of 1536, the Incas had learned how best to defend themselves against cavalry, by ambushing and annihilating Spanish horsemen in narrow passes. But the Incas, like all other foot soldiers, were never able to defeat cavalry in the open. When Quizo Yupanqui, the best general of the Inca emperor Manco, who succeeded Atahuallpa, besieged the Spaniards in Lima in 1536 and tried to storm the city, two squadrons of Spanish cavalry charged a much larger Indian force on flat ground, killed Quizo and all of his commanders in the first charge, and routed his army. A similar cavalry charge of 26 horsemen routed the best troops of Emperor Manco himself, as he was besieging the Spaniards in Cuzco.
西班牙人因其战马而取得的巨大优势，在目击者的记述中跃然纸上。骑兵可以很容易地超越印第安哨兵，使他们来不及向后面的印第安部队发出警报，骑兵还可以用马把印第安人撞倒，让马蹄把他们踏死。一匹战马在冲锋时的冲击力量、它的机动性、它可能有的进攻速度以及它所提供的居高临下并且得到保护的战斗位置，使得空旷地带的步兵几乎无招架之力。马的作用并不是仅仅由于它们在第一次与它们交锋的士兵心里产生恐怖的感觉。到1536年印加人大反叛时，印加人已经学会如何在狭窄的通道上伏击和消灭西班牙骑手，在抵抗骑兵部队时最有效地保卫自己。但印加人和所有其他步兵一样，从来没有能够在空旷地带打败骑兵部队。继阿塔瓦尔帕之后为印加帝国皇帝的是曼科，曼科的最优秀的将军是基佐·尤潘基。1536年，当基佐在利马围困西班牙人，并打算向该城发动猛攻时，两个中队的西班牙骑兵向一支比自己大得多的印第安军队发起了冲锋，在第一次冲锋中就杀死了基佐和他的所有指挥官，从而击溃了他的军队。一次由26名骑手组成的骑兵队的类似冲锋击溃了曼科皇帝亲自率领的最精锐的部队，他当时正在库斯科围攻西班牙人。
The transformation of warfare by horses began with their domestication around 4000 B.C., in the steppes north of the Black Sea. Horses permitted people possessing them to cover far greater distances than was possible on foot, to attack by surprise, and to flee before a superior defending force could be gathered. Their role at Cajamarca thus exemplifies a military weapon that remained potent for 6,000 years, until the early 20th century, and that was eventually applied on all the continents. Not until the First World War did the military dominance of cavalry finally end. When we consider the advantages that Spaniards derived from horses, steel weapons, and armor against foot soldiers without metal, it should no longer surprise us that Spaniards consistently won battles against enormous odds.
马匹改变战争是从公元前4000年左右在黑海北面的大草原上对马的驯化开始的。马匹使得骑马的人能够通过比步行远得多的距离，去进行奇袭，并在防御部队集合前逃之夭夭。马因其在卡哈马卡所起的作用而为一种军用武器提供了例证，这种武器6000年来直到20世纪初一直是举足轻重的，并最终在所有大陆得到运用。直到第一次世界大战，骑兵在军事上的支配地位才最后宣告结束。如果我们考虑一下西班牙人因为有了马匹、钢铁武器和盔甲而取得了对手无寸铁的步兵的优势，那么西班牙人总是能够以寡敌众，所向披靡，就没有什么可以使我们感到奇怪的了。
How did Atahuallpa come to be at Cajamarca??Atahuallpa and his army came to be at Cajamarca because they had just won decisive battles in a civil war that left the Incas divided and vulnerable. Pizarro quickly appreciated those divisions and exploited them. The reason for the civil war was that an epidemic of smallpox, spreading overland among South American Indians after its arrival with Spanish settlers in Panama and Colombia, had killed the Inca emperor Huayna Capac and most of his court around 1526, and then immediately killed his designated heir, Ninan Cuyuchi. Those deaths precipitated a contest for the throne between Atahuallpa and his half brother Huascar. If it had not been for the epidemic, the Spaniards would have faced a united empire.
阿塔瓦尔帕是怎么会到卡哈马卡来的？阿塔瓦尔帕和他的军队来到卡哈马卡，是因为他们刚刚在一场使印加人四分五裂、大伤元气的内战中取得了决定性的胜利。皮萨罗很快觉察到这种分裂的形势，并加以利用。这次内战的起因竟是一场天花流行。天花由西班牙移民带到巴拿马和哥伦比亚后，经由陆路传播到南美的印第安人中去，在1526年左右杀死了印加皇帝瓦伊纳·卡帕克和他的大多数朝臣，随后又迅即杀死了他的指定继承人尼南·库尤奇。这些死亡事故导致了阿塔瓦尔帕与他的同父异母兄弟瓦斯卡尔之间的皇位之争。如果不是因为天花流行，西班牙面对的可能就是一个团结一致的帝国。
Atahuallpa's presence at Cajamarca thus highlights one of the key factors in world history: diseases transmitted to peoples lacking immunity by invading peoples with considerable immunity. Smallpox, measles, influenza, typhus, bubonic plague, and other infectious diseases endemic in Europe played a decisive role in European conquests, by decimating many peoples on other continents. For example, a smallpox epidemic devastated the Aztecs after the failure of the first Spanish attack in 1520 and killed Cuitláhuac, the Aztec emperor who briefly succeeded Montezuma. Throughout the Americas, diseases introduced with Europeans spread from tribe to tribe far in advance of the Europeans themselves, killing an estimated 95 percent of the pre-Columbian Native American population. The most populous and highly organized native societies of North America, the Mississippian chiefdoms, disappeared in that way between 1492 and the late 1600s, even before Europeans themselves made their first settlement on the Mississippi River. A smallpox epidemic in 1713 was the biggest single step in the destruction of South Africa's native San people by European settlers. Soon after the British settlement of Sydney in 1788, the first of the epidemics that decimated Aboriginal Australians began. A well-documented example from Pacific islands is the epidemic that swept over Fiji in 1806, brought by a few European sailors who struggled ashore from the wreck of the ship Argo. Similar epidemics marked the histories of Tonga, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands.
因此，阿塔瓦尔帕在卡哈马卡的出现突出了世界史上的一个关键因素：具有相当免疫力的入侵民族把疾病传染给没有免疫力的民族。天花、麻疹、流行性感冒、斑疹伤寒、腺鼠疫以及其他一些在欧洲流行的传染病，毁灭了其他大陆的许多民族，从而在欧洲人的征服中起了一种决定性的作用。例如，一次天花流行在1520年西班牙人第一次进攻失败后蹂躏了阿兹特克人，并杀死了刚刚继承蒙特朱马为阿兹特克皇帝的奎特拉瓦克。在整个美洲，随欧洲人传进来的疾病从一个部落传播到另一个部落，远远走在欧洲人之前，据估计把哥伦布来到前的美洲土著人杀死了95%。北美人口最多并高度组织起来的土著人社会是密西西比河流域的酋长管辖的部落，它们在1492年至17世纪初这一段时间里也以同样的方式消失了，时间甚至比欧洲人在密西西比河地区建立第一个殖民地时还要早。1713年的一次天花流行是欧洲移民毁灭南非土著桑族人的最严重的一步。在英国人于1788年移民悉尼后不久，一场大批毁灭澳大利亚土著的流行病开始了。来自太平洋岛屿的有详尽文献证明的例子是1806年在斐济迅速蔓延的流行病，这种病是几个欧洲船员在“阿尔戈”号船只失事后挣扎着爬上岸时带来的。类似的流行病也在汤加、夏威夷和其他太平洋岛屿的历史上留下了痕迹。
I do not mean to imply, however, that the role of disease in history was confined to paving the way for European expansion. Malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases of tropical Africa, India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea furnished the most important obstacle to European colonization of those tropical areas.
然而，我并不是要暗示历史上疾病的作用只限于为欧洲人的扩张铺平道路。疟疾、黄热病以及热带非洲、印度、东南亚和新几内亚的一些其他疾病，是欧洲在这些热带地区进行殖民的最大障碍。
How did Pizarro come to be at Cajamarca? Why didn't Atahuallpa instead try to conquer Spain??Pizarro came to Cajamarca by means of European maritime technology, which built the ships that took him across the Atlantic from Spain to Panama, and then in the Pacific from Panama to Peru. Lacking such technology, Atahuallpa did not expand overseas out of South America.
皮萨罗是怎么到卡哈马卡来的？为什么不是阿塔瓦尔帕去征服西班牙？皮萨罗到卡哈马卡来，靠的是航海技术，是这种技术建造了船只，使他们从西班牙横渡大西洋来到巴拿马，然后又沿着太平洋从巴拿马来到秘鲁。阿塔瓦尔帕没有这种技术，所以不能从海上扩张到南美以外的地方。
In addition to the ships themselves, Pizarro's presence depended on the centralized political organization that enabled Spain to finance, build, staff, and equip the ships. The Inca Empire also had a centralized political organization, but that actually worked to its disadvantage, because Pizarro seized the Inca chain of command intact by capturing Atahuallpa. Since the Inca bureaucracy was so strongly identified with its godlike absolute monarch, it disintegrated after Atahuallpa's death. Maritime technology coupled with political organization was similarly essential for European expansions to other continents, as well as for expansions of many other peoples.
除了船只本身，皮萨罗的出现还依赖于集中统一的行政组织。有了这种组织，西班牙才能为这些船只提供资金、建造技术、人员和装备。印加帝国也有一个集中统一的行政组织，但这个组织实际上起了对帝国不利的作用，因为皮萨罗俘虏了阿塔瓦尔帕也就是夺取了印加帝国整个的指挥系统。因为印加帝国的行政系统和神圣的专制君主完全是同一回事，所以阿塔瓦尔帕一死，帝国也就分崩离析。航海技术配合行政组织，不但对许多其他民族的扩张是至关重要的，而且对欧洲人的扩张同样是至关重要的。
A related factor bringing Spaniards to Peru was the existence of writing. Spain possessed it, while the Inca Empire did not. Information could be spread far more widely, more accurately, and in more detail by writing than it could be transmitted by mouth. That information, coming back to Spain from Columbus's voyages and from Cortés's conquest of Mexico, sent Spaniards pouring into the New World. Letters and pamphlets supplied both the motivation and the necessary detailed sailing directions. The first published report of Pizarro's exploits, by his companion Captain Cristóbal de Mena, was printed in Seville in April 1534, a mere nine months after Atahuallpa's execution. It became a best-seller, was rapidly translated into other European languages, and sent a further stream of Spanish colonists to tighten Pizarro's grip on Peru.
使西班牙人来到秘鲁的一个相关因素是文字。西班牙人有文字，而印加帝国没有。用文字来传播信息，要比用口头传播来得广泛、准确和详细。从哥伦布航行和科尔特斯征服墨西哥传回西班牙的信息，使西班牙人大量涌入了新大陆。信件和小册子激发了人们的兴趣，也提供了必要而详尽的航海指导。皮萨罗的同事克里斯托瓦尔·德梅纳上尉为皮萨罗的业绩撰写了第一份公开发表的报告，这份报告于1534年4月，亦即阿塔瓦尔帕被处死后仅仅9个月，在塞维利亚出版发行。这份报告成了畅销书，迅速被译成欧洲其他语言，从而把又一批西班牙移民送去加强皮萨罗对秘鲁的控制。
Why did Atahuallpa walk into the trap??In hindsight, we find it astonishing that Atahuallpa marched into Pizarro's obvious trap at Cajamarca. The Spaniards who captured him were equally surprised at their success. The consequences of literacy are prominent in the ultimate explanation.
为什么阿塔瓦尔帕会走进这个圈套？事后想来，阿塔瓦尔帕竟会在卡哈马卡走进皮萨罗设下的明显圈套，真使我们感到惊奇。俘虏了阿塔瓦尔帕的西班牙人对他们的成功也同样感到惊奇。人的文化程度的影响在终极解释中占有突出的地位。
The immediate explanation is that Atahuallpa had very little information about the Spaniards, their military power, and their intent. He derived that scant information by word of mouth, mainly from an envoy who had visited Pizarro's force for two days while it was en route inland from the coast. That envoy saw the Spaniards at their most disorganized, told Atahuallpa that they were not fighting men, and that he could tie them all up if given 200 Indians. Understandably, it never occurred to Atahuallpa that the Spaniards were formidable and would attack him without provocation.
直接的解释是：阿塔瓦尔帕对西班牙人、他们的兵力和意图几乎没有得到什么情报。他那一点少得可怜的情报是通过口头得来的，主要是从一个使者那里得来的，这个使者在皮萨罗的军队从海岸向内陆的行军途中曾在军中访问过两天。这个使者看到西班牙人军容不整，于是就对阿塔瓦尔帕说，他们不是战斗人员，只要给他200个印第安人，就能把他们全都缚来帐下。阿塔瓦尔帕绝没有想到那些西班牙人竟是如此难以对付而且会毫无缘由地向他进攻，这是可以理解的。
In the New World the ability to write was confined to small elites among some peoples of modern Mexico and neighboring areas far to the north of the Inca Empire. Although the Spanish conquest of Panama, a mere 600 miles from the Incas' northern boundary, began already in 1510, no knowledge even of the Spaniards' existence appears to have reached the Incas until Pizarro's first landing on the Peruvian coast in 1527. Atahuallpa remained entirely ignorant about Spain's conquests of Central America's most powerful and populous Indian societies.
在新大陆，只有现代墨西哥和在印加帝国北方很远的一些毗邻地区的几个民族中的少数精英分子有书写能力。巴拿马距离印加帝国北部边界不过600英里。虽然西班牙人对巴拿马的征服在1510年就已经开始，但在皮萨罗于1527年首次登上秘鲁海岸之前，似乎没有任何关于西班牙人出现的消息到达过印加帝国。对于西班牙征服了中美洲大多数强大而人口众多的印第安人社会，阿塔瓦尔帕始终是一无所知。
As surprising to us today as Atahuallpa's behavior leading to his capture is his behavior thereafter. He offered his famous ransom in the naive belief that, once paid off, the Spaniards would release him and depart. He had no way of understanding that Pizarro's men formed the spearhead of a force bent on permanent conquest, rather than an isolated raid.
在我们今天看来，阿塔瓦尔帕被俘后的行为和导致他被俘的行为同样令人惊异。他交纳了他那笔著名的赎金，因为他天真地相信，只要付了赎金，西班牙人就会释放他并且远走高飞。他不可能了解皮萨罗的部下只是一支决心实现永久征服的军队的开路先锋，而不是单单为了一次孤立的袭击。
Atahuallpa was not alone in these fatal miscalculations. Even after Atahuallpa had been captured, Francisco Pizarro's brother Hernando Pizarro deceived Atahuallpa's leading general, Chalcuchima, commanding a large army, into delivering himself to the Spaniards. Chalcuchima's miscalculation marked a turning point in the collapse of Inca resistance, a moment almost as significant as the capture of Atahuallpa himself. The Aztec emperor Montezuma miscalculated even more grossly when he took Cortés for a returning god and admitted him and his tiny army into the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. The result was that Cortés captured Montezuma, then went on to conquer Tenochtitlán and the Aztec Empire.
犯这种致命的判断错误的，并非只有阿塔瓦尔帕一人。甚至在阿塔瓦尔帕被俘后，弗兰西斯科·皮萨罗的兄弟埃尔南多·皮萨罗也哄骗得阿塔瓦尔帕的第一流将军、指挥着一支庞大军队的查尔库奇马自投罗网，落入西班牙人的手中。查尔库奇马的判断错误，标志着印加人抵抗失败的转折点，是几乎同阿塔瓦尔帕本人被俘一样的重大事件。当阿兹特克皇帝蒙特朱马把科尔特斯看作是神灵降世，并允许他和他的小小军队进入阿兹特克首都特诺奇蒂特兰时，他的判断错误甚至更加显而易见。结果是科尔特斯俘虏了蒙特朱马，然后又进一步征服了特诺奇蒂特兰和阿兹特克帝国。
On a mundane level, the miscalculations by Atahuallpa, Chalcuchima, Montezuma, and countless other Native American leaders deceived by Europeans were due to the fact that no living inhabitants of the New World had been to the Old World, so of course they could have had no specific information about the Spaniards. Even so, we find it hard to avoid the conclusion that Atahuallpa “should” have been more suspicious, if only his society had experienced a broader range of human behavior. Pizarro too arrived at Cajamarca with no information about the Incas other than what he had learned by interrogating the Inca subjects he encountered in 1527 and 1531. However, while Pizarro himself happened to be illiterate, he belonged to a literate tradition. From books, the Spaniards knew of many contemporary civilizations remote from Europe, and about several thousand years of European history. Pizarro explicitly modeled his ambush of Atahuallpa on the successful strategy of Cortés.
从世俗的观点来看，阿塔瓦尔帕、查尔库奇马、蒙特朱马以及其他无数的被欧洲人欺骗的美洲土著领袖之所以判断错误，是由于当时新大陆没有任何居民去过旧大陆，因此他们当然不可能对西班牙人有任何具体的认识。即使如此，我们仍然觉得难以避免得出这样的结论：如果阿塔瓦尔帕的社会对人类的行为有更多的经验，他“本来”是会产生更大的怀疑的。皮萨罗在到达卡哈马卡时，除了对他在1527年和1531年碰到的几个印加臣民进行的审问中所了解到的情况外，他对印加人也是一无所知的。然而，虽然皮萨罗本人碰巧也是一个文盲，但他属于一个有文化修养的传统。西班牙人从书本上知道了同时代的许多与欧洲差别很大的文明国度，也知道了几千年的欧洲历史。皮萨罗伏击阿塔瓦尔帕显然是以科尔特斯的成功谋略为样板的。
In short, literacy made the Spaniards heirs to a huge body of knowledge about human behavior and history. By contrast, not only did Atahuallpa have no conception of the Spaniards themselves, and no personal experience of any other invaders from overseas, but he also had not even heard (or read) of similar threats to anyone else, anywhere else, anytime previously in history. That gulf of experience encouraged Pizarro to set his trap and Atahuallpa to walk into it.
总之，文化修养使西班牙人继承了关于人类行为和历史的大量知识。相形之下，阿塔瓦尔帕不但对西班牙人本身毫不了解，对来自海外的其他任何入侵者毫无个人经验，而且他甚至也没有听人说过(或在书本上读到过)在别的什么地方和在历史上以前什么时候对别的什么人的类似威胁。这种在经验方面的巨大差距，促使皮萨罗去设下圈套而阿塔瓦尔帕走进了圈套。
THUS, PIZARRO'S CAPTURE of Atahuallpa illustrates the set of proximate factors that resulted in Europeans' colonizing the New World instead of Native Americans' colonizing Europe. Immediate reasons for Pizarro's success included military technology based on guns, steel weapons, and horses; infectious diseases endemic in Eurasia; European maritime technology; the centralized political organization of European states; and writing. The title of this book will serve as shorthand for those proximate factors, which also enabled modern Europeans to conquer peoples of other continents. Long before anyone began manufacturing guns and steel, others of those same factors had led to the expansions of some non-European peoples, as we shall see in later chapters.
因此，皮萨罗俘虏阿塔瓦尔帕这件事，表明了导致欧洲人向新大陆移民而不是美洲土著向欧洲移民的那组近似的因素。皮萨罗成功的直接原因包括：以枪炮、钢铁武器和马匹为基础的军事技术；欧亚大陆的传染性流行病；欧洲的航海技术；欧洲国家集中统一的行政组织和文字。本书的书名是这些近似因素的简略的表达，这些因素也使现代欧洲人能够去征服其他大陆的民族。在有人开始制造枪炮和钢铁之前很久，这些因素中的其他因素便已导致了某些非欧洲民族的扩张，这我们将会在以后的几章中看到。
But we are still left with the fundamental question why all those immediate advantages came to lie more with Europe than with the New World. Why weren't the Incas the ones to invent guns and steel swords, to be mounted on animals as fearsome as horses, to bear diseases to which European lacked resistance, to develop oceangoing ships and advanced political organization, and to be able to draw on the experience of thousands of years of written history? Those are no longer the questions of proximate causation that this chapter has been discussing, but questions of ultimate causation that will take up the next two parts of this book.
但是，我们仍然有一个根本的问题没有解决，这就是：为什么这种直接优势总是在欧洲一边，而不是在新大陆一边。为什么不是印加人发明枪炮和钢刀，骑上像战马一样的令人生畏的牲口，携带对欧洲人来说没有抵抗力的疾病，修造远洋船只和建立先进的行政组织，并能从几千年有文字记载的历史吸取经验？这些不再是本章已经讨论过的那些关于近似因果关系的问题，而是将要占去本书下面两部分篇幅的关于终极因果关系的问题。
注释：
1 . 里格：旧时长度单位，相当于3英里左右。——译者
2 . 萨维奇(Savage)一词在英语中有“野蛮”、“凶狠”、“残暴”的意思。——译者